Editors Note: We begin this semester of dialogue with a research paper written by a student from the University of North Carolina, Greensboro. The paper was developed as part of a class examining the racial and ethnic makeup of America. This particular research focuses on Muslim Americans, clarifying facts, and some fiction. The author also presents his personal self-reflection on what his research revealed, and the potential impact of his understanding of Muslim Americans moving forward.
Their Entrance Into American Society
[As the Muslim American population continues to grow in America it will have a larger and greater impact on society, culture, and politics. This paper attempts to develop a clearer understanding of this impact by analyzing the interaction of the American Muslim social networks with the traditional American society on the macro, mezzo, and micro levels. Then the paper delves into the political implication of the growth and increase in political activity of the American Muslim community.]
Part 1
Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
The American Muslim population is increasing in America and its influence on American culture, politics, and society will continue to develop as well. Their assimilation into American society has been greatly affected by many factors including terrorist attacks carried out in the name of Islam. My hope is that studying the formation of the American Muslim identity will have a positive effect on American society by creating a better understanding and provide avenues to accepting this group into America.
In our exploration of the American Muslim experience in forming its unique identity within American society, I will use the conceptual framework associated with social networks. Social networks can be defined as “a relatively stable and complex pattern of relationships among multiple interdependent and self-organizing elements” (Morçöl, 2009, p. 45). In an attempt to further clarify social networks; Siegel (2009) evaluated networks based on the network size, ties between individuals, and the presence of elites, the overall structure, and the distribution of motivation to identify four specific types of social networks: small world, village, opinion leader, and hierarchy. In each type, the individual reacts differently to certain pressures such as the increase in the size of the group, motivation of the group’s leaders, and the amount of participation by group members.
The American Muslim population is a stable group that is tied together by their religious beliefs in Islam. Islam penetrates all areas of an individual’s life, including social, economic, private, and public arenas. Islam stresses the importance of individuals living their lives in accordance to the norms of the group by requiring that all followers must adhere to the five pillars of Islam: 1) the profession of faith, 2) prayer five times a day, 3) almsgiving, 4) the fast of Ramadan, and 5) pilgrimage. These pillars create stability within the group, establish group norms, and shape member’s views of in and out group members, thus creating a “role of social networks, proposing that social embeddedness provides individuals with the resources needed to invest in collective action” (Klandermans, 2008, p. 993).
The American Muslim identity group also relates to the social network concept by creating a social framework for American Muslims to interact within society by having a structure in place with defined groups (mosques) and leaders (imams) within the Muslim community. The presence of this social framework fits well within the specific hierarchy type of the social network concept.
The social network concept is closely related to the social identity theory. The social identity is “that part of an individual’s self-concept which derives from his knowledge of his membership in a social group together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership” (Tajfel, 1978, p.). Tajfel and Turner (1979) developed the social identity theory composed of three processes: social categorization, social identification, and social comparison. The social identity theory evaluates how an individual relates and interacts within a group and the social network concept focuses on how the individual’s relationships and the underlying social frameworks affect their motivation and willingness to participate with group activities.
The social network concept also is related to organizational identity. Organizational identity is “the totality of repetitive patterns of individual behavior and interpersonal relationships that taken together comprise the unacknowledged meaning of organizational life” (Diamond, 1988, p. 169). The social network concept describes organizations that individuals naturally form to create order in life and the resulting relationships between people in the in and out groups.
Macro-level
According to the American Religious Identification Survey, conducted in 2008, the total number of U.S. respondents who identified themselves as Muslim was about 1,349,000 and showed an increase of 256% from 1990 to 2008. This information demonstrates a significant increase in the Muslim population in the United States, even if their overall numbers are still small in comparison to the total United States population. According to www.america.gov, members of the American Muslim community are found in all American occupations including artists, filmmakers, businessmen, fashion designers, songwriters, and television journalists just to name a few.
Five characteristics of the Muslim American social network that will have an impact on the interaction with traditional American society are “the influence of grievances, efficacy, identity, emotions, and embeddedness” (Klandermans, 2008, p.992). Islam provides the social network for these characteristics to play out. The social network of the Muslim American group is of the hierarchy type, and the elite leaders within the community must set the tone and motivation of the group and have the support of the local leadership. If the tone and motivation is positive and moving towards assimilation, communication, inclusion, and openness, then these characteristics of the social network will become assets. If on the other hand, the tone and motivation is negative and moving towards isolationism, divisiveness, and creating obstacles, then the characteristics of the social network will become deficits.
Many Muslim Americans “perceive many government counterterrorism, security, and immigration policies to be unfair and discriminatory in their application to Muslim-Americans” (Schanzer, 2010, p. 40). The perceived discrimination by the Muslim American population has resulted in an increase in tensions between the Muslim American community and traditional American society. An example of such a policy would be “A secret program to conduct radiation monitoring at hundreds of mosques and other prominent Muslim sites in five cities” (Schanzer, 2010, p. 7). This policy demonstrates the isolation of the Muslim population from mainstream American society and provides some validation for the fears and mistrust within the Muslim American community.
United States foreign policy to provide aid to the international Muslim community in the form of financial support, medical supplies, food, clean water, and building infrastructure are great examples of policies that have a positive impact on the Muslim American community. These policies demonstrate that the United States is not at war with Islam and should help calm some of the fears of the domestic Muslim population.
Mezzo level
At the mezzo-level of society, I will discuss the roles of nonprofits in advocating the needs of the Muslim American community. First, I will address the response to the counter-terrorism policies and laws passed in the United States with the intent of restricting and preventing the flow of aid and financial support towards possible terrorist groups by Muslim charities. These Muslim charities responded by “alliance-building, litigation by individual organizations, and other strategies” (Sidel, 2010, p. 306) as a means to confront the restrictions that the United States government imposed on their fundraising and distribution of aid. These organizations have had little success due to the continued terrorist threat and the lack of overall support from other charities that are not impacted directly by the policies.
A second example of nonprofits advocating for the Muslim American community was the public service announcement campaign “’I am an American’ [which] was created in direct response to the hundreds of hate crimes against Arabs, Muslims, and Sikhs and began airing on television ten days after 9/11” (Alsultany, 2007, p. 596). This nonprofit organization worked to confront the growing number of hate crimes directed at the Muslim American community in the wake of 9/11. They helped to influence the view of traditional American society by reminding them that America is composed of all races, nationalities, and religions. The impact of the ads are difficult to measure and may have contributed to uniting Americans in support in the “War on Terror,” however the impact on the attitude of American society towards Muslim Americans has not been determined.
The third example of nonprofits advocating for the Muslim American community is the Council on American-Islamic Relations which “has sought to promote a positive image of Islam and Muslims in the United States, through media relations, lobbying, education, and advocacy” (Alsultany, 2007, p. 599). This multipronged approach to advocating for the Muslim American community has had a positive effect on the views held by traditional Americans by demonstrating that “Arab and Muslim Americans are in a position of having to display their ability and willingness to assimilate in order to have a chance at becoming American cultural citizens” (Alsultany, 2007, p. 608). This also attempts to influence and encourage the Muslim American community to assimilate with the American culture.
Micro-level
At the micro-level of society, I will discuss five culturally competent practices one should employ when working with the Muslim American community. First, one must be aware of the history, beliefs, and religious practices of Islam to overcome American society’s “ignorance of Muslims [that] may play a role in this negative stereotyping” (Penning, 2009, p. 278). The Muslim American’s daily life revolves around their religion and this has an impact on the social, public, private, and family sectors of their life. One who interacts with a Muslim American must respect and be culturally sensitive to their fundamental beliefs.
Second, one must be culturally aware of the perception that the international Muslim community has of America. Salim Mansur (2005) put it this way, “The majority public opinion in the Muslim world has been shaped by the power of the United States abroad rather than by the nature of American democracy at home. The result is a grossly distorted image of the United States among Muslims, even among those who reside in America” (p. 7). United States foreign policy within international Muslim communities has had and continues to have an impact on how Muslim Americans view the traditional American society. If Muslim Americans perceive that the United States view’s international Muslim communities in a negative light, due to their adherence to Islamic practices and beliefs, then these views will have a negative impact on the will of Muslim Americans to assimilate into American society.
Third, one should be culturally aware of the misconception that the Muslim American community could be identified by its ethnic component. Love (2009) wrote, “In terms of religion, these Middle Easterners belong to several denominations of Islam as well as Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism and other religions as well. Neither can Muslim Americans be easily categorized: there are Muslim Americans in every demographic group” (p. 408). The Islamic religion crosses all racial and ethnic lines. One should not think that just because an individual is from the Middle East that they must be Muslim.
Fourth, one should be culturally aware of the presence of many denominations of Islam just like in Christianity. One cannot assume that all Muslim Americans hold the same religious views. There are varying degrees of the strictness to the adherence of the five pillars of Islam as well as the main division between Sunni and Shiia Muslim sects. These differences may cause some friction within the Muslim American community.
Fifth, one should be culturally aware of some Muslim cultural traditions that may appear strange to a member of traditional American society. There are certain cultural differences such as the clothing that women wear, the acceptable relationships between women and men, the role of women and family, and different holidays and festivals celebrated within the Muslim American community. One should be culturally sensitive, aware, and demonstrate respect for these differences and not be condescending, but rather accepting and open to these new experiences.
Part 2
Theme Based Research
The role of the Muslim American community will continue to increase into 2050 as their number of members rise and as long as terrorism is associated with this group in the minds of most members of traditional American society. The impact of the Muslim American community on American society will be voiced through a growing political constituency, increasing political engagement as a way to express grievances, and an increase in anti-Islamophobia advocacy organizations.
Islam is one of the fastest growing religions in the world. The number and percentage of Americans that identify with this religious belief system is increasing. As their numbers continue to rise, they will have a greater voice within the representative democracy in the United States because politicians will begin to court their vote and thus become advocates for their needs. Their growing numbers also increase the chance that more individuals from this group will obtain elected offices. The growing political constituency of the Muslim American community will begin to have an impact on public opinion, policies, and laws.
As the Muslim American community increases its political engagement there will be many positive impacts on their community and the traditional American society. Schanzer (2010) identifies three positive impacts of the increased participation of the Muslim American community: “1) grievances are brought into the public sphere and clearly articulated so they do not fester and deepen, 2) disputes are resolved through debate, compromise, and routine political procedures, and 3) political mobilization leads to ever-increasing numbers of Muslim-American leaders speaking responsibly about difficult issues on both the national and international stages” (p. 41). Not only does the political engagement benefit the relationship between the Muslim American community and the traditional American society by assimilating to one of the core fundamental characteristics of American society, but also the increase in political engagement will also benefit the United States on the international stage when developing foreign policy and reducing tensions with Muslim countries.
Another benefit of the growth and increased political activity of the Muslim American community is “the one that appears best to fit the available empirical data on the trajectory of
anti-Islamophobia advocacy organizations […] the model of most interest groups of all sorts in the United States, characterized by legal activism, cooperation with law enforcement and legislative lobbying, without claiming access to racialized remedies” (Love, 2009, p. 419). As the political activity of Muslim advocacy organizations continues to increase, one would expect these organizations to follow the same strategies of other advocacy groups. By following the examples of the traditional advocacy groups, the Muslim organizations are assimilating to the traditions and culture of traditional American society. The growth of the size and effectiveness of these Muslim advocacy organizations, within the framework of traditional American society, aids in breaking down the misunderstandings, stereotypes, and fears represented by Islamophobia and contribute to the acceptance of the Muslim American community into traditional American society.
Implications for Society
As time continues to advance forward to the year 2050, I suspect that the Muslim American community will continue to move closer to being accepted within mainstream American society. The transition will not be without difficulty. However, as the Muslim American community begins to find its voice, direction, and avenues to publicly express its grievances, impact domestic and foreign policy, and overcome the stereotypes associated with Islamophobia, their community will increasingly be accepted into American society.
Schanzer (2010) stated, “Yet, there remains work to be done. Our shared goals are to enhance trust, increase public safety, and create a positive social environment for Muslim-Americans. With capable leaders acting in good faith, we believe these goals are achievable” (p. 45). Since the Muslim American community follows the hierarchy type of social networks, then the actions of the leaders within the Muslim American community are vital to successful integration into traditional American society. As these leaders begin to interact, communicate, and build relationships with others outside of their community, then the rest of the Muslim community should follow suit and begin the process of assimilating with traditional American society.
The American society has the opportunity to gain much from the assimilation of the Muslim American segment of the population such as an increase in religious diversity, greater understanding of the international Muslim community, and a powerful weapon in the “War on Terror.” The impact of the Muslim American community on domestic and foreign policy will benefit all of America and her standing within the worldwide arena.
Part 3
Self Reflection
My original impression of the Muslim American identity group contained some correct and incorrect information. I was under the impression that the Muslim American community was much larger than what was revealed by my research. I assumed that there was a significant number of Muslims within the African American population, in addition to individuals from the Middle East and Asian geographical locations, and would result in a total percentage of the United States Muslim population in the 5 – 8 % range instead of less than 1 %. I was also not aware of the considerable amount of difficulties that Muslim nonprofit organizations faced beyond what other nonprofit organizations were dealing with. I assumed that the government’s policies impacted all nonprofit organizations equally. However, I believe that the difficulties the Muslim nonprofit organizations face are related primarily to the specific areas in the world that they provide aid to, and receive contributions from, which should not be confused with the impression that the policies were intentionally directed at them for antireligious, ethnic, or racial reasons.
I understand some of the contributing factors related to Islamophobia such as fear of the unknown, stereotyping, and misinformation. I have personally been on the receiving end of these same factors when I was traveling in the Middle East, but instead of Islamophobia there was a since of a phobia of Americans. This phobia was overcome and broken down by working side by side with these individuals, daily communication, development of personal relationships, and helping people that were in need. I believe that the best way for traditional American society to triumph over Islamophobia is for individuals to put forth the effort to lend a helping hand and get to know someone who is a member of the Muslim American community.
I realize that there is the perception within the Muslim American community and the international Muslim community that American policies are in some way anti-Muslim. I believe that this distortion and false perception can be corrected by several means. The Muslim American community could embrace the avenues within American society to express their desires and grievances in the form of running for public office, government jobs, the creation, and involvement in interest groups, voting, and involvement in other traditional community activities. The United States government should continue to distinguish between terrorist and their associated activities from the Islamic religion and the Muslim community as a collective body. Also the United States government should work closely with the Muslim nonprofit organizations to provide communication, services, aid, supplies, education, and other material support in exchange for the increased burdened placed upon these organizations by the government in the “War on Terror.” I think that the key to a successful foreign policy in the Muslim world will depend on the full backing of the American Muslim community here in the United States and their ability to impact these policies, voice their viewpoints, and demonstrate their support to the international Muslim community.
I also think the Muslim American community should make a concerted effort to not isolate itself in its own small communities within larger communities. This tendency to group together and not being willing to step outside of their comfort zone will only continue to perpetuate misunderstanding and stereotypes that persist between the Muslim American community and the traditional American society. I think the initial steps toward assimilation must begin within the Muslim American community and be embraced when received by American society. Other minority groups in America have taken this difficult step and succeeded. I hope that the same can be said of the growing Muslim population within America.
Self Discovery
The following are a list of five questions that I would ask an individual that is a member of the Muslim American community:
- What groups, besides Muslim groups, do you belong to and identify with? Why? I would ask this question because I would want to evaluate the individual’s response as a way to determine how much the individual has assimilated within traditional American society. I would then be able to determine if the individual is isolating them self within the Muslim American community or integrating with their society.
- Do you think that a Muslim will become president of the United States within your lifetime? Why? Their response will shed a light upon how the individual perceives the majority of Americans’ attitudes to be towards Muslims and to what extent these views may change over time. Their response will also reflect how much faith they have in the traditional avenues, within American society, to express one’s grievances.
- Do you feel that American domestic and foreign policies unfairly single out the Muslim community at home and abroad? Why? The individual’s response would, to some extent, show whether their personal identity is more closely associated with the Muslim community or with the American Society. Other aspects of their response could demonstrate their knowledge of these policies and the resulting effects on the individual and their community.
- Have you ever experienced Islamophobia and how did you deal with the situation? Their response will demonstrate the effects of Islamophobia at the individual level, the rate of occurrence, and whether instances are increasing or decreasing. The second portion of the question will reveal the coping mechanism that the individual used to respond to the situation. I am interested in where the individual sought assistance. Was the assistance provided from within the Muslim American community or did the assistance came from within the American society? This information can be used to assess their level of assimilation into American society.
- Do you think that the religious practices of Islam can coexist within the bounds of the United States’ constitution? This question goes straight to the heart of the issue of whether or not the Muslim community in America desires and is compatible with the most fundamental aspects of the traditional American society. Americans naturally assume that the Muslim community wants to assimilate and adhere to our traditions, culture, and society and this question confronts this basic assumption.
Bibliography
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Comments
I think for the United States
I think for the United States of America to grow as a country we as a people should accept people for who they are and to not be afraid of certain cultures because of a mistake terrorist from their country made. I don't believe it is fair to treat Islamic people like they are "all" terrorists. I know America as a whole, still holds a grudge against people of this culture because of the tragedy of 9/11. We should be more accepting rather than judge these people because that was only a few people who committed that heinous act. The way the U.S treats the Islamic people reminds me of the way they treated the Japanese Americans back in Pearl Harbor. As stated Islam is spreading quickly throughout the United States and I feel that it is imperative that we look at this situation through reasonable and accepting eyes. All in all, I think we should give the Muslims and their culture a chance here.
Acceptance
I agree that the American Muslims are treated unfairly in today’s society in the US, and that one of the main causes of this issue was the 9/11 attacks that shocked the world. The fact of the matter is Americans are afraid of another possible attack thus the TSA has heightened security in the airport to what I actually believe the new scanners to be absolutely ridiculous. However I don't like the fact that this article is only referring to American Muslims when in fact it is all people of Arabic decent. I have friends whose families are from Lebanon and are often singled out in the airport. One such case was actually a student who was travelling with his senior class on a mission trip coming home from Honduras and was pulled away from his teachers to interrogated and nearly didn't make it on the plane home (note this happened in 2008, 7 years after 9/11)Though I think this article does a good overall view of the recently evolved racism in the US I think that it should have included all Arabic peoples being treated differently because of how they look and not necessarily by what they wear or practice.
Utopia
When reading this article some of the issues presented mirror the very issues that the black community and other minority groups face. This author broke down the intertwined relationship that racism has with every aspect of a minority persons life. After facing rejection of their culture the 9/11 made things far worse. A whole large society of people have to suffer the judgement from the actions of a few. Now this adds another large stereotype to them. I think the large conflict with Americans accepting Muslims and giving them the equality they diverse is understanding. Americans seem to fear what they don't understand or know. Just like many minority groups it takes the strong voice of the group to speak out and be heard. After watching the "Eyes on the Prize" video and researching other minorities that were enslaved or deprived of their right. I sat there in disappointment and thought to myself "does everyone have to speak out to gain approval of the white man,European, Caucasian!" It seems that with out a voice they don't see reason to stop or to look at themselves and realize that the racism is wrong. It just keeps moving on to the next group. I also re-evaluated that all these minority groups need to realize that together they are the majority. If we can be stronger,good men and women we can unite and voice as a whole. Then their is no choice but to join us and we can truly be a melting pot. Then I read my last few sentences over again and realized that is an example of Utopian society that is an unrealistic goal.
The Muslim American Experience
I think this essay/article does a really good job at explaining the hardships American Muslims face. The situation is identical to the hardships early American immigrants faced as well as African Americans and today's Mexican immigrants. I think the writer makes a good point that education and further understanding of Muslims reveals that they are nothing like the terrorists who tarnish their peaceful religion. 9/11 became the shifting point in relationships between the average American and American Muslims. A lot of hate was directed towards them as we wrongly connected terrorism to all Muslims. However this isn’t the case with the majority of Muslims, and there are extremists in other religions besides Islam. The best way for Americans to accept The Muslims living amongst them is to learn and understand the way they actually are and not connect them to the terrorist who bring down their religion.
I agree that the essay finds
I agree that the essay finds a great way to incorporate findings and, for lack of a better word, suggestions to the traditional American society on how to be more open and understanding when getting to know a person of the Islamic faith. I grew up in New York and around the time of 9/11 there were so many hostile people acting out violently towards anyone that they felt could be linked to a terrorist group due to their physical appearance and dress. It was disgusting. I did, however, have mixed feelings about this article being written... While I am extremely pleased that someone has taken the time to learn about a faith and culture that is not their own, it disappoints me that there need to be 'guidelines' for traditional Americans on how to engage in conversation or work with a person of Islamic faith...
Guidlines
This article was very well written and while the guidlines seem un-necesary I feel it was a significant part of the article. In our society we find many people writting articles and discussing issues that we all face a sAmericans, but many of those articles stop there. Proposing the issue with out a solution or suggetion on how to solve the problem. Those problems will remain as long as we keep stating there is a problem. Well, "thank you for stating the obviouse!" is what I say. I feel the guidlines need to be looked into or maybe at least considered definitely those who do not understand. It is hard to understand the victim when you are not in that position. This author took a step forward by offering opinion and ideas it is our job to take it one step further and try to apply them or modify them accordingly.
I support the new Islamic
I support the new Islamic movement that America is facing today. I believe that as diverse as the United States of America is, it is important for us to come together as one and look at this Muslim issue from non judgemental eye. I think that it is not ethically right that Americans judge the Islamic culture because of the twin tower issue and we see everyone that is Muslim as a terrorist. If we want to live the true American dream, we must accept what comes to us. We haave to see that our country is based on differences and we have built everything off of it and makes the country better. I feel we must be better and our first step is to not judge the Muslims as much.
Why do we need guidelines?
I mentioned this in a response to another student's post, but while I feel that this was an extremely well written article and thank the author for their contribution, I am still disappointed with traditional Americans (myself included in this group) for needing a set of 'guidelines' on how to deal with people who are different from us. We should treat everyone we come into contact with in a respectful manner, and I can understand where the initial hesitation came from almost TEN years ago when the events of 9/11 occured, but only because of the lack of information that Americans had about the Islamic faith. It has been about a decade, and not enough Americans have educated themselves yet.
I am glad that this article pointed out the various denominations, like in Christianity, so that people can stop stereotyping and assuming that everyone is a terrorist. It is so ignorant for people to claim they are American and have patriotism and support the “American Way” when they try and exclude others from our country. If that is the new “American Way,” then I do not want to be a part of it.
I liked Shazner's three positive impacts that the growing population and political activism of the Muslim-American society will bring to the traditional American society. I think that the three positive impacts mentioned are particularly interesting because they are universal and can be applied to American policies with ANY country or group of people.
I have a new appreciation for Muslim-Americans because of their multi-faceted lifestyles after reading the article. Their faith is present in all aspects of their lives and I find it impressive that Muslim-Americans can manage to stay faithful to their religious demands while still assimilating and participating in American culture.
I would like to say again that I feel the article was necessary and very well-written, but I still wish that Americans would take a second to look around and welcome other people into our already diverse nation without needing reminders on assimilation-etiquette. I think we forget that we are a nation that prides itself on equal opportunity and diversity, but I fear that this claim is only expressed on paper these days rather than in the actions and mentality of the American society.
Growth for the United States
I support the new Islamic movement in America. This article did a wonderful job outlining the problems faced by Muslim Americans, and also what they can bring to the table. The Islamophobia that Muslims face because of 9/11 is neither right nor just. It has been my experience that many Americans are unlearned on this subject and have major misconceptions about the Muslim population. I think this article outlined a few of these. Islam is actually a very peaceful and loving religion; it is all about serving and helping others. The 9/11 terrorists were not devout Muslims; nowhere in the Qur’an is that kind of violence sanctified. I think America can benefit greatly from the Muslim American population and grow in new ways because of them. There is no reason for them to be treated different or valued less than any other group. America, after all, is a melting pot of many different groups from virtually all over the world, and that is what makes us the country we are.
Diversity
I enjoyed reading this article and how it pointed out that we must be aware of Islam’s history, beliefs and religious practices in order to overcome our society’s ignorance towards Islam. Although I can understand that Islamophobia has stemmed from tragedies such as the attacks on 9/11, negative portrayals of Islam originate from many false stereotypes and it needs to be understood that Muslims are a diverse group of people in terms of ethnicity, culture and religious beliefs. Americans have the tendency to group all Muslims into a single and often-negative category but Muslim Americans are just like every other American; we all want equal opportunities and the privilege of living in a democratic government where we are not persecuted for our beliefs.